Orfanou, V., Birch, T., Sindbæk, S.M., Feveile, C., Barfod, G.H. & Lesher, E.E.  (2021). "On diverse arts: crucible metallurgy and the polymetallic cycle at Scandinavia’s earliest Viking town, Ribe (8th–9th c. CE), Denmark",  Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences 13, 81. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-021-01308-1

Abstract

This study presents results from the analytical investigation of the polymetallic, non-ferrous metallurgical cycle at early Viking Age Ribe, Denmark, in the 8th and 9th centuries CE. We combine extensive surface analyses of crucibles and moulds (handheld XRF) with targeted micro-destructive examination (micro XRF, electron microprobe spectroscopy—EPMA) of crucibles, moulds, ingots, blanks, and finished objects from the different stages of the secondary metallurgical production. Results show the working of a range of copper alloys with (leaded) brass as the most common, alongside small-scale working of silver and gold. Analytical evidence suggests a move towards technological standardisation at Ribe workshops from the pre-Viking period to the early Viking Age as reflected in the tighter compositional groupings for the crucible fabrics, the alloy choices for specific artefact types, e.g. keys and brooches, and an overall move towards high Zn brass from the 8th century to the first half of the 9th century CE. Finally, we discuss the limitations and potentials of the surface and micro-destructive analytical methods used and the insights gained from each data set and propose a direction for future research.